英语四六级语法讲解大全

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一、动词的时态和语态 (Tenses and Voices of Verbs)
       
        动词的时态
        时态是谓语动词所表示的动作或情况发生时间的各种形式。英语动词有16种时态：
       

	一般	进行	完成	完成进行
现在	am, is, are, do, does	am / is / are doing	have / has done	have / has been doing
将来	will / shall do	will / shall be doing	will / shall have done	will / shall have been doing
过去	was, were, did, v-ed	was / were doing	had done	had been doing
过去                                                                                                         将来	would / should do	would / should be doing	would / should have done	would / should have been doing

       
        但是常见的只有9种：一般现在时、一般过去时、一般将来时、现在进行时、过去进行时、现在完成时、过去完成时、过去将来时和现在完成进行时。
       
        1.  一般现在时
        1）  表示经常性、习惯性的动作；表示现在的状态、特征和真理。句中常用often, usually, every day等时间状语。
        2）  在时间状语从句和条件状语从句中，用一般现在时表示将来。例如：
        He goes to school every day.
        If you come this afternoon, we’ll have a meeting.
       
        2.  一般过去时
        1）  表示过去某时间发生的事、存在的状态或过去反复发生的动作。
        2）  表示过去经常发生的动作，也可用 “used to” 和 “would + 动词原形”。
        注意：used to表示过去常发生而现在不再发生的动作或存在的状态。另外， “be used to + 名词或动名词” 表示 “习惯于……”。例如：
           He worked in a factory in 1986.
           I used to smoke when I was a college freshman.
       
        3.  一般将来时
        一般将来时表示将来的动作或状态，其表达形式除了“will或shall + 动词原形”外，还有以下几种形式：
        1）“be going to + 动词原形”，表示即将发生的或最近打算进行的事。例如：
        We are going to have a meeting today.
        2）go, come, start, move, sail, leave, arrive等词可用进行时态表示按计划即将发生的动作。例如：
        I’m leaving for Beijing tomorrow.
        3）“be to + 动词原形”表示按计划要发生的事或征求对方意见，或表示命令。例如：
           The boy is to go to school tomorrow.
        4）“be about to + 动词原形”表示即将发生的动作。例如：
           We are about to leave.
       
        4.   现在进行时
        1）  现在进行时表示现在正在进行的动作，由“to be + 现在分词”构成，另外，“系动词+介词短语或副词”也表示进行时的意义。例如：
        What are you doing?
        The bridge is under construction.
        2）  表示感觉、愿望和状态的某些动词如have, be, hear, see, like等词一般不用于进行时。
       
        5.   过去进行时
        过去进行时表示过去某一时刻、某一阶段正在进行的动作，由“was / were + 现在分词”构成。例如：
        He was reading a novel when I came in.
       
        6.   现在完成时
        现在完成时由“have / has + 过去分词”构成。其使用有以下情况：
        1）  现在完成时所表示的动作在说话之前已完成，而对现在有影响。句中没有具体时间状语。例如：
        He has gone to Fuzhou.（说话人认为他不在该地）
        He has been to Fuzhou.（说话人认为他在该地）
        2）  现在完成时所表示的动作开始于过去，持续到现在，也许还会持续下去。常用for或since表示一段时间的状语或so far, now, today, this week / month / year等表示包括现在时间在内的状语。例如：
        He has studied English for 5 years.
        He has studied English since 1990.
        注意：表示短暂时间动作的词，如come, go, die, marry, buy等的完成时不能与for, since等表示一段时间的词连用。
        3）  现在完成时还用在时间和条件状语从句中，表示将来某时完成的动作。例如：
        I’ll go to your home when I have finished my homework.
       
        7.   过去完成时
        1）  过去完成时由“had + 过去分词”构成。过去完成时的动词表示过去某一时刻或某一动作之前完成的动作或状态。句中常用by, before, until, when等引导的时间状语。例如：
        By the end of last year we had built five new houses.
        2）  过去完成时的动词还可表示过去某一时刻之前发生的动作或状态持续到过去某个时间或持续下去。例如：
        Before he slept, he had worked for 12 hours.
       
        8.   过去将来时
        过去将来时表示从过去的某时间看来将要发生的动作或存在的状态。过去将来时由“should / would + 动词原形”构成。第一人称用should，其他人称用would。例如：
        They were sure that they would succeed.
       
        9.   现在完成进行时
        现在完成进行时由“have (has) + been + 现在分词”构成，表示动作从过去的某个时刻开始，持续到现在，可能继续下去，也可能刚刚结束。现在完成进行时与现在完成时有时可以交换使用，含义没有什么差别，如work, study, live, teach等。例如：
        I have worked here for three years.
        I have been working here for three years.
        但多数动词在这两种时态中表示不同意思。例如：
           I have written a letter. (已写完)
           I have been writing a letter. (还在写)
           注意：表示短暂动作的动词，如finish, marry, get up, come, go等不能用这种时态。
            
            

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        动词的语态
       
        1.   概念与构成
        当句子的主语是动作的执行者时，谓语的形式用主动语态；当句子的主语是动作的承受者时，谓语要用被动语态。被动语态由“助动词be + 过去分词”构成，时态通过be 表现出来。如下表所示：

时态	谓语动词的被动式	例句
一般现在时	am / is / are + done / v-ed	You are required to do this.
一般过去时	was / were + done / v-ed	The story was told by her.
一般将来时	will / shall be + done / v-ed	The problem will be discussed tomorrow.
现在进行时	am / is / are + being + done / v-ed	The road is being widened.
过去进行时	was / were + being + done / v-ed	The new tool was being made.
现在完成时	has / have + been + done / v-ed	The novel has been read.
过去完成时	had + been + done /v-ed	He said that the work had been finished.
过去将来时	would / should + be done / v-ed	He said that the trees would be planted soon.

       
        2.   一些特殊的被动语态
        1）  短语动词的被动结构：用于这类被动结构的短语动词要作为整体看待，即要把它们看作单个及物动词。例如：
        The baby is looked after carefully.
        2）  有些动词形式上是主动结构，但表示被动的意思：
        ①  具有及物意义的不及物动词的被动意义：在主语是物的句子中，有些动词的主动形式可以表示被动意义。常用的这类动词有sell, read, feel, write, wear, wash, open, clean, cook, keep, cut, fill, blow, measure, lock, run, record, begin, shut等等。例如：
        The book sells well. 这本书很畅销。
        Your composition reads well. 你的作文读起来很不错。
        This pen writes smoothly. 这支钢笔好用。
        ②  动名词主动形式表示被动意义：通常是物作want, need, require等动词的主语时，表示事物客观上需要……，用动名词一般式的主动形式作宾语表示被动意义。例如：
        The classroom wants / needs / requires cleaning. 教室需要打扫。
        这种用法的动名词改用不定式一般式的被动形式后也可表示同样意义。例如：
        The classroom wants to be cleaned.
       
        Exercises:
       
        1. Directions: There is a blank and a verb (or verbal phrase) given in the brackets in each of the following sentences. Fill in the blank with the verb or verbal phrase in its proper form.
        1) The students were writing busily when Miss Brown went to get a book she _____ (leave) in the office.
        2) It is said that the new building that _____ (build) now will be used for teaching.
        3) Just a few years ago, tomatoes _____ (believe) to have magical powers, making people who ate them fall in love.
        4) By the coming end of the term, we _____ (learn) twenty passages.
        5) “What are you doing now?”
          “I _____ (prepare) my lessons for the final exam.”
        6) Needless to say, the second list of words _____ (can, remember) more easily than the first one.
        7) In the old days, the children _____ (take good care of) by the mother because she did not work outside the house.
        8) The waiter soon _____ (bring) him a cup of tea but the Englishman shook his head.
        9) My father went to Shanghai in 1988 and he _____ (work) there ever since.
        10) John said that the car _____ (make) long before his mother was born.
       
        2. Directions: In each of the following sentences there is one underlined part which is incorrectly used. Please put it right in a proper form.
        1) We usually spent ten minutes doing fast-reading exercises in class.
        2) We hoped you will provide us with some information needed in our research.
        3) The medical team has left for the mountainous area next month.
        4) You will be able to write good papers when you mastered some writing skills.
        5) He saw at a glance that something unusual is happening in the class.
        6) it was reported that the boy has seen a UFO flying over the area.
        7) The old man was made burst into a happy smile by the letter from his daughter.
        8) She was not at all surprising at the news.
        9) I don’t know when the football match will be taken place.
        10) The teacher explained to the students that the movement of the earth around the sun has caused seasons.
       
        Answers:
        1. 1) had left                               2) is being built                    3) were believed                  
        4) will have learned                 5) am preparing                   6) can be remembered
        7) were taken good care of        8) brought                           9) has been working / has worked
        10) had been made
        2. 1) spend                                 2) would provide                  3) is leaving for / will leave for
          4) have mastered                      5) was happening / had happened
          6) had seen                              7) made to burst into            8) surprised
          9) will take place                            10) causes
            
            

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        二、主谓一致（Subject-Verb Concord / Agreement）
       
           主谓一致即句子的主语和谓语在人称和数上保持一致。一般说来，主语的单、复数形式决定着谓语动词应采取的相应形式。在实际应用中，有时情况较为复杂，但在现代英语中基本遵循如下原则：语法一致原则、意义一致原则和就近原则。
       
        语法一致原则
           语法一致原则就是根据主语的语法形式决定其谓语动词的语法形式。主语是单数，谓语动词就用单数形式；主语是复数，谓语动词就用复数形式。例如：
           A letter has been sent to every student.
           Two letters have been sent to every student.
           To treat them in that way is unfair.
           Smoking cigarettes is dangerous to your health.
       
        意义一致原则
           意义一致原则指主谓之间的一致关系不是由主语的语法形式来决定，而是由主语所表达的意义来决定。形式是单数的主语，其谓语可能是复数形式；反之，形式是复数的主语，其谓语有可能是单数。例如：
           The class are doing experiment on heat and light.
           The team are playing magnificently.
           The United States is a country advanced in science and technology.
           Ten dollars is all I have left.
           Two thirds of the area is under water.
           同一单词作主语，根据其表达意义的不同，有时用单数动词，有时却要用复数动词。例如：
           The family is the basic unit of the society.
           The family have agreed among themselves to spend their vacation in Italy.
       
        就近原则
           就近原则是指谓语动词与它最近的名词、代词或其他词在人称或数上保持一致。常见于either … or, neither … nor等并列结构或there, here引起的句子中。例如：
           Either you or he was wrong.
           There is a pen, a few envelopes and some paper in the drawer.
           Not only his children but he himself is hoping to be there.
       
           上述三条原则的具体应用比较复杂，以下几点需要特别注意。我们分三大类情况来看：
        1. 谓语动词用单数的情况
        1）one, each, every, everyone, everybody, no, no one, one of, many a, either, neither, nobody, anyone, somebody, someone等作主语或主语修饰语时，谓语动词用单数。例如：
           Every boy and girl is treated in the same way.
           Neither of them drinks coffee.
           Each man and (each) woman has good reason to be proud of the work done by their fathers.
        2）a kind of, a sort of, a portion of, a section of, a series of, a succession of, a pair of, a couple of等修饰主语时，谓语动词一般根据语法一致原则用单数。例如：
           A pair of scissors is what he needs now.
           A series of lectures on radio engineering is scheduled.
           There is a couple of vacant rooms behind the office.
        3）表示国家、单位、书报等名称或表示时间、距离、体积、度量衡（将其视为一整体）等的名词或短语作主语时，谓语动词用单数。例如：
           The Netherlands is famous for its tulips.
           One hundred miles is too far to travel on foot.
           Ten pounds was missing from the bill.
           The Thirty-Nine Steps is an interesting novel.
        4）不定式、动名词短语或名词性从句作主语时，谓语动词也要用单数。例如：
           To master at least a foreign language is very necessary in the present conditions.
           Forgetting the past means nothing but betrayal.
           When they will start on their journey hasn’t been decided.
        5）单数词作主语，虽然后接由including, as well as, together with, in addition to, accompanied by等词或短语连接其他的词，谓语动词仍然用单数。例如：
           Gold, as well as silver, ahs recently risen in price.
           The factory, with all its equipment, has been burned.
           John together with his brother has gone to the party.
       
        2. 谓语动词用复数的情况
        1）both, some, few, many, several, the majority (of), the minority (of)等词语作主语或主语修饰语时，谓语动词用复数。例如：
           Both of them have gone to Shanghai on business.
           Few of my classmates really understand me.
           The majority of (the) doctors believe smoking is harmful to health.
        2）以复数形式结尾的山脉、群岛、瀑布等专有名词作主语时，谓语动词用复数。例如：
           The Niagara Falls are very spectacular.
           The Philippines are in the Pacific Ocean.
        3）表示群体或类属的“the + 形容词”作主语时，谓语动词用复数。例如：
           The injured were sent to hospital at once.
           In many western films, the good are well rewarded and the bad are punished.
       
        3. 谓语动词的单、复数要视情形而定的情况
        1）由and 连接两个主语时，谓语动词一般用复数。例如：
           Your problem and mine are similar.
           但当and连接的词语作整体考虑，指同一人、同一事物或概念时，谓语动词用单数。例如：
           The worker and poet has published a collection of poems recently.
           Too much work and too little rest often leads to illness.
           当and连接两个形容词修饰一个单数名词作主语时，如果指一件事物谓语动词用单数；如果指两件事物则谓语动词用复数。例如：
           A black and white (黑白相间) horse was trotting down.
           The red and the yellow rose are both beautiful.
        2）集合名词如family, group, team, the public, crowd, committee, staff等作主语，表整体意义时谓语动词用单数；表个体意义时用复数。例如：
           Our team has won the game.
           Our team are discussing about how to win.
        3）一些表示数量的短语如a lot of, any of, most of, half of, two-thirds of, eighty percent of, part of, the rest of, some of, none of, all of等与名词连用时，后面名词用单数则谓语动词用单数；名词用复数，谓语动词也用复数。例如：
           A large percentage of our pilots retire early.
           A large percentage of his income is paid in income tax.
           Most of the book is interesting.
           Most of the books are informative though a little dull.
        4）另一些表示数量的短语如a number of, a total of, an average of等后接复数名词，谓语动词用复数；但其中不定冠词换成定冠词时，谓语动词要用单数。例如：
           A number of students were late for school owing to the storm.
           The number of jobs is increasing.
           An average of 3000 letters a month are received by the newspaper’s office.
           The average of letters received each month is 3000.
       
        Exercise
       
        1. Directions: Tick out (选出) the correct form of the verb given in the brackets to complete each sentence.
        1) There (seem, seems) to be many arguments on both sides.
        2) Two-thirds of this (has, have) been finished.
        3) Now the band (is, are) putting away their instruments.
        4) Ten divided by two (equal, equals) five.
        5) A pair of trousers (is, are) on the sofa.
        6) The article is one of the best stories that (has, have) ever been written.
        7) Neither the teacher nor the students (has, have) enough time.
       
        2. Directions: put the following sentences into English.
        1) 各种办法都试过了。
        2）来自北方的学生不多。
        3）战争与和平是历史永恒的主题。
        4）除了两个佣人之外，晚宴没有人迟到。(except)
        5）事先起草一篇作文是个好主意。
        6）事故是由什么引起的完全是个谜。
        7）许多人为了革命事业牺牲了自己的生命。（many a）
        8）不但教师反对，学生也反对这一改变。
       
            
            

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        三、形容词和副词的比较级、最高级（Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs）
       
        形容词比较级和最高级的形式
       
        1. 形容词比较级和最高级的构成

构成法	原级	比较级	最高级
①一般单音节词末尾加-er和-est	strong	stronger	strongest
②单音节词如果以-e结尾，只加-r和-st	strange	stranger	strangest
③闭音节单音节词如末尾只有一个辅音字母，须先双写这个辅音字母，再加-er和-est	sad                                                                                                         big                                                                                                         hot	sadder                                                                                                         bigger                                                                                                         hotter	saddest                                                                                                         biggest                                                                                                         hottest
④少数以-y,-er (或-ure), -ow, -ble结尾的双音节词，末尾加-er和-est (以-y结尾的词，如y前是辅音字母，把y变成i，再加-er和-est，以-e结尾的词仍加-r和-st)	angry                                                                                                         clever                                                                                                         narrow                                                                                                         noble	angrier                                                                                                         cleverer                                                                                                         narrower                                                                                                         nobler	angriest                                                                                                         cleverest                                                                                                         narrowest                                                                                                         noblest
⑤其他双音节和多音节词都在前面加单词more和most	difficult	more difficult	most difficult

       
        2. 不规则形容词的比较级和最高级形式

原级	比较级	最高级
good / well	better	best
bad / ill	worse	worst
many / much	more	most
little	less	least
far	farther / further	farthest / furthest

       
        副词比较级和最高级的形式
           副词比较级和最高级的变化形式与形容词基本上一样。
        1. 一般副词
           hard — harder — hardest                   fast — faster — fastest
           late — later — latest                         early — earlier — earliest
        2. 特殊副词
           well — better — best                        much — more — most
           badly — worse — worst                    little — less — least
        3. 开放类副词
           开放类副词即以后缀-ly结尾的副词不能像形容词那样加-er和-est，而应在副词原形前加more或most。如：
           quickly — more quickly — most quickly
           quietly — more quietly — most quietly
       
        形容词与副词比较级和最高级的基本用法
       
        1. 比较级
        1）比较级通常由“形容词（副词）比较级 + than”构成，表示在两者中间一方比另一方“更加……”。连词than后可接句子，也可接名词、代词、名词短语、介词短语、动词、动词不定式、-ing结构和-ed结构，有时也可省去than。如：
           Mary is happier than Jane.
           He lives more happily than I.
        2）注意than前后两项相比较的人或事物要一致。如：
           The purpose of the research had a more important meaning for them than it did for us.
           Sound travels faster through water than through air.
        3) 比较级前还可用much, even, still, a little等词语来修饰，表示“……得多”，“甚至……”，“更……”，“……一些”等意思。如：
           Japan is a little larger than Germany.
           用“… times + 形容词的比较级 + than …”句式表示倍数；用“表示数量的词 + 比较级 + than …”来表示具体的比较差别。如：
           Our room is twice larger than theirs.
           He is a head taller than I.
        4) 隐含比较级
           ①有时比较级并不一定出现than，这时通过上下文可暗示出。如：
           Are you feeling better now?
           ②有些形容词在表示比较的时候，跟 “to”而不用“than”。如：
           prior to 较早的，较重要的                 superior to 优越，高于
           inferior to 下等的，次于                    senior to 年长的，地位高的
           junior to 年幼的，地位低的                      preferable to 更好的
           The task is prior to all others.
           In maths he felt superior to John.
           He is two years senior to me.
           Health without riches is preferable to riches without health.
       
        2. 最高级
        1）最高级用于三者或三者以上的比较，形容词的结构形式是“定冠词 + 形容词最高级 + 名词 + 表示范围的短语或从句”（如of all, of the three, in the world, that has ever taken place等）。 如：
           Of all the writers in England, William Shakespeare is the most widely known.
        2) 副词的最高级与形容词最高级的区别在于最高级前没有定冠词the。如：
           He runs fastest of the three.
        3) 当用介词短语表明形容词或副词最高级的比较范围，作介词宾语的名词或代词与句中的主语属同一类人或物，并把主语包括在内时，用介词of；如不属于同一类人或物，而只说明在某一时间、空间范围内的比较时，用介词in。如：
           He is the tallest of the four boys.
           He is the tallest in our class.
        4) 可以用原级、比较级、最高级三种形式来表示最高级的意思。如：
           She is the best student in her class.
           She is better than any other student in her class.
           No other student in her class is better than she.
           No other student in her class is as good as she.
            
            

enthree

       
        四、虚拟语气（Subjunctive Mood）
       
        虚拟语气用来表示说话人的愿望、请求、意图、建议、怀疑、设想等未能或不可能成为事实的情况，以及在说话人看来实现的可能性很小的情况。
       
        1. If 条件句中的虚拟语气
        If 非真实条件句所表示的假设是不可能或不大可能发生或实现的，句中的主句与从句都用虚拟语气，其构成如下：

	从句	主句
与现在事实相反	动词的过去式(be为were)	would (should, could, might) + 动词原形
与过去事实相反	had + 过去分词	would (should, could, might) + have + 过去分词
与将来事实可能相反	动词过去式（should + 动词原形， were to + 动词原形）	would (should, could, might) + 动词原形

       
        例句：
        If I had time, I would go to the movies with you.
        If we hadn’t made adequate preparations, the conference wouldn’t have been so successful.
        If it were to rain tomorrow, the game would be put off.
       
        几种特殊形式：
        1）在非真实条件句中，有时从句的动词所表示的动作和主句的动词所表示的动作并不同时发生，在这样的条件句中使用的虚拟式称为混合虚拟式。其构成视具体情况而定。例如：
        If I had taken my raincoat when I came out this morning, I would not be wet now.
        If I were you, I wouldn’t have missed the film last night.
        2）引导非真实条件从句的连词if在正式文体中有时可以省去，were, had, should等非行为动词这是应提到从句句首。例如：
        If I were you, I wouldn’t feel sorry.
        Were I you, I wouldn’t feel sorry.
        3）不用if引导的虚拟条件句时，without, but for, but that, otherwise等同样表示虚拟。例如：
        But for your help, they couldn’t have succeeded.
        She wasn’t feeling well. Otherwise, she wouldn’t have left the meeting so early.
       
        2. 其它的虚拟语气形式
       
        1）意为“提议、建议、请求、命令”等意思的动词所带的从句（包括宾语从句和主语从句）中，谓语部分用（should +） 动词原形形式。词类动词有：ask, advise, agree, arrange, beg, command, decide, demand, desire, determine, direct, instruct, insist, intend, maintain, move, order, persuade, pray, propose, recommend, request, require, suggest, tell, urge, stipulate等。例如：
        I suggest that we (should) go camping tomorrow.
        He insisted that our laboratory reports (should) be handed in the day after the experiment was done.
        It’s proposed that a committee (should) be set up to look into the matter.
        表示上述意思的名词所带的表语从句或同位语从句也采用相同的虚拟语气的形式。如：
        His suggestion is that we (should) go camping tomorrow.
        His suggestion that we (should) go camping tomorrow is good.
        注意：当suggest, insist等词不再表示“建议”或“坚持要求”的含义时，其后的从句不再用虚拟语气。当上述名词所带的从句为定语从句时也不用虚拟语气。例如：
        His look suggested that he wasn’t telling the truth.
        He insisted that he was right.
        The suggestion that he made is good.
       
        2）在 It is + 形容词 + that从句的句型中，that引导的主语从句中的谓语动词采用should + 动词原形形式，其中should常省略。常见此类形容词有：absurd, advisable, better, best, desirable, (un)fair, fortunate, good, imperative, important, incredible, just, natural, (un)necessary, odd, pleasant, possible, preferable, right, ridiculous, sad, silly, unusual, urgent, vital, wrong等，表示必要、应该、建议、要求、惊讶、不相信等意。例如：
        It’s necessary that we (should) set out at once.
       
        3）在lest, for fear that, in case等词引导的从句中，谓语部分用 (should +) 动词原形表示虚拟。例如：
        Grown people should never say or do anything wrong before children, lest they (should) set them a bad example.
       
        4）虚拟语气可用于wish后的宾语从句中，表示与事实相反的愿望。其表达形式一般是将谓语动词提前一个时态。例如：
        I wish I had been to the concert last night.
        I wish he would forgive me.
        I wish I knew the spelling of the word now.
       
        5）在would rather后面的从句中，动词也要求用虚拟语气，表示某人的愿望。其表达形式一般是将谓语动词提前一个时态。例如：
        I’d rather you left tomorrow instead of today.
        I’d rather you hadn’t done anything like that.
        I’d rather stay at home instead of going outside.
       
        6）在由as if, as though引导的方式状语从句中，表示和现在事实相反或对现在情况有所怀疑，或表示与主句谓语动词同时或其后的假设情况时，从句中谓语动词用过去时。表示过去想象中的动作或情况或表示在主句谓语动词所表示时间之前的假设情况，从句用过去完成时。如果表示的情况很可能发生或是事实，则用陈述语气。例如：
        She looks as if she knew all about it.
        They talked as though they had got acquainted with each other for years.
       
        7）在if only引起的感叹句中，用谓语动词的一般过去时表示与现在的事实相反的情况，用过去完成时表示与过去事实相反的情况。例如：
        If only he knew our telephone number!
        If only I had prepared for the examination last night.
       
        8）It is (high, about) time that…的句型要求用虚拟式，表示应该做还没有做的事。其表达形式一般是谓语动词使用过去时态。例如：
        It’s high time that he stopped smoking.
        It’s about time that we took our leave.
            
            

ensix

       
       
        五、非谓语动词（Non-finite Verb）
       
           在英语中，不是用于句子谓语而是用于担任其他语法功能的动词叫做非谓语动词，也称作动词的非限定形式。
           非谓语动词有三种形式：不定式（the Infinitive）、分词（the Participle）和动名词（the Gerund）。
       
        不定式
        1. 构成与形式
           不定式由不定式符号“to + 动词原形”构成（有时不带to）。前面可以加某些疑问代词，如what, who, which, 或疑问副词，如when, where, why等，构成特殊的不定式短语，如what to do next, how to get there等。
        不定式形式有：

	主动形式	被动形式
一般式	to do	to be done
完成式	to have done	to have been done
进行式	to be doing	to be being done
完成进行式	to have been doing

       
        2. 用法
           不定式不能单独作谓语，没有人称和数的变化，具有名词、形容词和副词的特征，而且还保留着动词的特征，因而可以有状语修饰，如果是及物动词，还可以带宾语，从而构成不定式短语。不定式或不定式短语在句子中可以作主语、表语、宾语、定语、状语、主语补足语和宾语补足语。
        1）作主语
        To make a plan for our future is important.
        How to get enough capital is still a question.
        It is difficult to make a decision without knowing all the facts.
        2）作表语
        The important thing is to save lives.
        What he wanted to do was to wash his hands of it.
        3) 作宾语
        I like to go for a walk in the warm sunshine.
        We must remember to follow the safety rule.
        4）作定语
        She usually has a lot of meetings to attend in the evenings.
        He was always the first to come and the last to leave.
        There are some things to be grateful for.
        5) 作状语
        She decided to work harder in order to catch up with the others.
        He lifted a rock only to drop it on his own feet.
        6) 作主语补足语
        It is reported to be true.
        The education of the young is seen to be of primary importance.
        7) 作宾语补足语
        Please remind me to take my medicine tomorrow.
        They didn’t allow her to park the car in this street.
           有一些动词后用作宾语补足语的不定式通常不带to。这种动词有两类：一类是感官动词，如feel, see, hear, watch, notice等；另一类是使役动词，如make, let, have等，如：
        Did you notice him leave the house?
        The made the boy go to bed early.
       
        3. 时态与语态
        1）完成式
        I am sorry to have kept you waiting.
        To have known her is an honor.
        2) 进行式
        They seem to be getting along quite well.
        He pretended to be listening attentively.
        3) 完成进行式
        The famous singer is said to have been collecting folk songs in Xinjiang.
        John is said to have been studying for a shole morning.
        4) 被动式
        I wish to be excused.
        he was very pleased to have been given such an opportunity.
            
            

enone

       
       
        分词
        1. 构成与形式
           分词有两种形式，即现在分词（present participle）和过去分词（past participle）。除不规则动词外，现在分词由动词原形加词尾-ing构成；过去分词由动词原形加词尾-ed构成。两者的区别主要是：现在分词表示主动意义，或正在进行的动作；过去分词表示被动意义，或已经完成了的动作。如：
        burning forest               燃烧着的森林（主动，即森林自己在燃烧）
        burned skin                   烧伤了的皮肤（被动，即皮肤被火烧伤）
        developing countries      发展中国家（正在进行，这个国家正在发展）
        developed countries       发达国家（完成，这些国家已经得到了发展）
        现在分词的形式有：

	主动形式	被动形式
一般式	doing	being done
完成式	having done	having been done

           过去分词因为本身就表示被动与完成的意义，所以只有一种形式done。
       
        2. 用法
           分词主要起形容词和副词的作用，在句中可作定语、表语、状语、主语补足语和宾语补足语。
        1）作定语
        Tell the boy playing there not to make so much noise.
        We can only see the part of the moon lighted by the sunlight.
        2）作表语
        The story of his life sounds interesting.
        He appeared satisfied with our performance.
        3) 作状语
        Hearing the news, they all jumped with joy.
        Given better attention, the trees could grow better.
        4) 作主语补足语
        The machine will be kept running for two days.
        Our views have to be made known to them all.
        5) 作宾语补足语
        I heard someone knocking at the door.
        You should keep her informed of what is going on here.
           比较：see, feel, hear, watch, notice等动词后既可接不带to的不定式也可以接现在分词作宾语补足语，但二者在意义上是不同的。现在分词表示动作正在进行，即非全过程；不定式表示动作的完成，即全过程。如：
        She saw the man getting on the truck.（正在往车上爬）
        She saw the man get on the truck and drive off.（已经爬上了车）
       
        3. 现在分词的时态与语态
        1）完成式
        Having done his homework, the boy began to watch TV.
        Not having met him, I can’t tell you what he is like.
        2) 被动式
        The house being built is a big project.
        3) 完成被动式
        Having been given such a good chance, how could she give it up?
        Having been told that some guests were coming, she shopped all morning in that supermarket.
            
            

entwo

       
       
        动名词
        1. 构成与形式
           动名词形式与现在分词相同，由动词原形加词尾-ing构成。
           动名词的形式有：

	主动形式	被动形式
一般式	doing	being done
完成式	having done	having been done

       
        2. 用法
           动名词，顾名思义，既有动词也有名词的某些特征。可带有自己的宾语和状语，构成动名词短语。在句中可作主语、宾语、表语和定语。
        1）作主语
        Smoking is not good for your health.
        it is a waste of time discussing such matters.
        2) 作宾语
        For many years, he has never stopped reading English.
        On hearing that Tom had passed his examination, I rang him up.
           常用动名词作宾语的动词及短语动词有：stop, mind, enjoy, finish, avoid, deny, miss, escape, consider, admit, risk, complete, can’t help, give up, leave off, put off, keep on等。
        3）作表语
        What he likes is playing chess after supper.
        The real problem is getting to know the needs of the customer.
        4) 作定语
        He may be in the reading room, for all I know.
        The turning speed of the new machine is much higher than that of the old one.
           比较：动名词作定语与现在分词作定语有所不同：动名词和它所修饰的名词没有逻辑上的主谓关系，它多表示被修饰的名词的功能、用途；而现在分词作定语，它与所修饰的名词在逻辑上有主谓关系，前者是后者发出的动作。如：

动名词	现在分词
sleeping-car	卧车	sleeping child	酣睡的孩子
working method	工作方法	working people	劳动人民
singing practice	歌咏练习	singing girl	歌女

       
        3. 时态与语态
        1）完成式
        He regretted having shot the bird.
        I apologize for not having kept my promise.
        2) 被动式
        She didn’t mind being left alone at home.
        He insisted on being treated as an ordinary employee.
        3) 完成被动式
        After having been interviewed, he was offered the job.
        He prided himself on having never been beaten in chess.
            
            

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        六、名词性从句
       
           名词性从句的功能相当于名词词组。按其句法功能，名词性从句可分为主语从句、表语从句、宾语从句和同位语从句。引导名词性从句的有：连接词that, whether和if，关系代词who, whom, whose, what, which, wahtever, whichever, whoever以及关系副词when, where和how。
       
        主语从句（The Subject Clause）
        1. 主语从句在句中作主语。如：
        Which team will win the match is still not certain.
        Why he did that wasn’t quite clear.
        2. 主语从句位于句首时，会使句子显得笨重，因此常以it作为形式主语，而将主语从句后置，以保持句子平衡。如：
        It is strange that she didn’t come yesterday.
        3. whether与if引导主语从句的区别：
           whether引导的主语从句既可放在句首也可放在句尾，if引导的主语从句只能放在句末。如：
        Whether she comes or not makes no difference.
        It is doubtful whether / if the President knew the details of the plan.
       
        表语从句（The predicative clause）
        1. 表语从句在句中作表语，位于主句中的系动词之后。如：
        The question is whether she can speak English.
        That is what we need.
        2. 表语从句可用whether引导，也可用as if引导，但不能用if引导。如：
        His first question was whether Tom had arrived yet.
        It looked as if it was going to rain.
        3. 主句的主语是reason时，表语从句要用that，不能用because。如：
        The reason why he was dismissed was that he was careless and irresponsible.
       
        同位语从句（The Appositive Clause）
        1. 同位语从句在句中作同位语，它一般要放在主句中某些名词的后面，说明这些名词的含义。可跟同位语从句的名词主要有fact, news, promise, reason, idea等。如：
        We heard the news that our team had won.
        I have no idea how soon they are coming.
        2. 同位语从句与定语从句的主要区别：
           从意义上来说，同位语从句对一个名词加以补充说明，定语从句对一个名词进行修饰或限定。从结构上说，同位语从句由连词引导，连词在从句中不作任何成分，只起引导作用；引导定语从句的关系代词在从句中担任一定成分，含有代替所修饰或限制词语的意义。如：
        They were all shocked at the news that Germany had declared war on Russia. 他们都为德国向俄国宣战而感到震惊。（同位语从句，that只起引导作用，在句中不作任何成分。）
        They were all shocked at the news that was announced on the radio. 他们都为收音机里宣布的消息而震惊。（定语从句，that在句中作主语，若省略that，句子成分不全。）
       
        宾语从句（The Object Clause）
        1. 宾语从句在句中作及物动词或介词的宾语。如：
        I wonder who he is.
        He is sorry for what he has done.
           注意：在口语及非正式文体中，that常省略。
        2. 使用宾语从句时应注意时态呼应。
        1）主句谓语动词是现在时或将来时，从句谓语动词可以用任何所需要的时态。
        2）主句谓语动词是过去时态，从句谓语动词一般须用过去时。如：
        I thought he studied hard.
        3) 从句如果与某一具体的过去时间状语连用，尽管其谓语动作发生在主句谓语动作之前，仍用一般过去时。如：
        She told me that her father died in 1991.
        4) 从句所说明的是一般真理或客观事实，即使主句用过去时，从句仍用一般现在时。
        The teacher told the students that the computer is a wonderful machine.
        3. 不能省略that的宾语从句
        1）句中的动词后接两个或两个以上的that从句作宾语时，第一个that可省，但后面的that不可省。如：
        He said (that) he couldn’t tell you right away and that you wouldn’t understand.
        2) 当主句的谓语动词与that宾语从句之间有插入语时，that一般不可省。如：
        Just then I noticed, for the first time, that our master was wearing his fine green coat and his black silk cap.
        3) 当that从句是双宾语中的直接宾语时，that不可省。如：
        I must never tell anyone that I could not see the cloth.
        4) 当that宾语从句前有it作形式宾语时，that不可省。如：
        We think it important that we study hard.
        4. whether和if引导的宾语从句可以互换使用，但介词后的宾语从句只能用whether，不能用if。如：
        He asked me if / whether my brother was at home.
        It is a question of whether we should go.
            
            

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        七、定语从句和状语从句（Attributive Clauses and Adverbial Clauses）
       
        定语从句
           定语从句也称为关系从句或形容词性从句，由关系代词who, whom, whose, which, that或关系副词as, when, where, why等引导。关系词除了起引导作用外，还在从句中指代前面的先行词，并在从句中担任一定的成分。如：
        The car which was stolen has been found.（which指代先行词car，在从句中作主语）
        The house whose windows are broken is empty.（whose是所有格，在从句中作定语）
        I shall never forget the day when I entered the university.（when指代先行词day，在从句中作时间状语）
       
        1. 限定性定语从句和非限定性定语从句
           定语从句就其与先行词的关系而言，可分为限定性定语从句和非限定性定语从句。限定性定语从句和先行词之间没有逗号，表示对先行词起修饰限制作用；而非限定性定语从句和先行词之间有逗号分开，是对先行词进行补充说明，相当于并列句。如：
        He is the man who has strong personality. （限定性定语从句）
        My mother, who works abroad, is coming next week. （非限定性定语从句）
           注：1）非限定性定语从句不能用that引导，一般用which, as或who（指人）。用which或as引导时，既可以修饰主句的部分内容，也可修饰主句的全部内容。如：
        He spoke confidently, which impressed me most. （which指代整个主句，在从句中作主语）
               2）as引导的非限定性定语从句既可放在主句之前，也可以放在主句之后，但which或who引导的非限定性定语从句不能放在主句之前。如：
        As we all know, the moon is a satellite of the earth.
        The large area is covered with thick snow, which affects people’s life greatly.
               3) 在限定性定语从句中，关系代词作宾语时可以省略；但在非限定性定语从句中，关系代词作宾语时不能省略。如：
        The film (which) I saw last night is about a young teacher. (which可以省去)
        She introduced me to her husband, whom I hadn’t met before. (whom不能省去)
       
        2. 通常只用关系代词that，不用which, who或whom的几种情况
        1）当先行词是all, everything, nothing, something, anything, little, much, none, few等时，如：
        All that you want is here.
        2) 当先行词被all, no, some, any, every, a few, a little, much, only, very等修饰时。如：
        There is no person that doesn’t make mistakes.
        3) 当先行词被序数词或形容词最高级修饰时。如：
        This is the best film that I have ever seen.
        4) 当出现两个或两个以上的先行词，并同时兼指人或物时。如：
        We are talking about the people and countries that we have visited.
        5) 当主句是以which或who开头的特殊疑问句时。如：
        Who is the person that is standing over there?
        6) 当定语从句为there be句型时，关系代词只能用that，但经常可以省略。如：
        I know the difference (that) there is between you.
        7) 当关系代词在从句中作表语时，常用that。如：
        He does not seem to be the man that he was. 他似乎和过去不一样了。
       
        3. 与其他词连用引导的定语从句
           As引导定语从句时，可指人也可指物，通常与the same, such, so等连用，形式为：the same … as, such … as, as … as, so … as。as在定语从句中可作主语、宾语、表语等。如：
        She knew he felt just the same as she did. 她知道他的感觉与她自己的一样。（as代替事，作宾语）
        I lend you such books as will interest you. 我借给你使你感兴趣的书。（as代替物，作主语）
           注：the same … as和the same … that的用法不同。as引导的定语从句表示其内容与主句所讲的事物“相似”，指同类事物；that引导的定语从句表示其内容与主句所讲的事物是“同一个”，指同一事物。如：
        This is the same pen as I lost yesterday. 这和我昨天丢的笔一样。（类似的笔）
        This is the same pen that I lost yesterday. 这支笔就是我昨天丢的那支。（同一支笔）
       
        4. “介词 + 关系代词”引导的定语从句
           在“介词 + which / whom”结构中，介词的选择取决于三种情况：
        1）定语从句中谓语动词与表语的搭配。如：
        This is the college in which I am studying.
        He is the man about whom we are talking.
        2) 先行词与介词的习惯搭配。如：
        The speed at which the machine operates is known on the meter.
        3）当定语从句为最高级时只能用of which；否则用其他介词。如：
        I have five dictionaries of which Longman Dictionary is the best.
        I have five dictionaries among which Longman Dictionary is published in UK.
           注：不可拆分的动词短语介词不能提前，如put up with；有的短语可能有不同的介词搭配，此时需要根据上下文来确定。如：be familiar with / to, compare with / to等。
           有时为表意清楚，还可以在关系副词where / when前加介词from, to等。如：
        China is the birthplace of kites, from where kite flying spread to Japan, Thailand and India.