英语词汇学 Chapter 7

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　　Changes in Word Meaning
        　　1.Types of changes
        　　1)Extension
        　　The extension of meaning, the opposite of restriction, means the widening
of a word's sense until it covers much more than what it originally
conveyed.
        　　2)Narrowing
        　　Narrowing of meaning, also called restriction of meaning, means that a word
of wide meaning acquires a narrower, specialised sense which is applicable to
only one of the objects it previously denoted.
        　　3)Elevation
        　　When the meaning of a word narrows toward a more favourable meaning it is
called elevation
        　　4)Degradation
        　　Degradation means the falling of word meaning into disrepute, for one
reason or another. Words once respectable or neutral may shift to a less
respectable, or even derogatory meaning.
        　　2. Causes of changes
        　　1)Extra-linguistic factors
        　　(1)historical reason
        　　(2)class reason
        　　(3)psychological reason
        　　2)Linguistic factors
        　　(1)shortening
        　　(2)borrowing
        　　(3)analogy